Philosophy is a Greek word meaning "love of wisdom." Although the Greeks are usually thought of as the inventors of philosophy, India has an even older philosophical tradition. Like the Greeks, the early Indian philosophers asked the big questions of life, such as "What is reality?" and "Who am I?" and the most important question of all, "How should we live?" Indian philosophy has always been seen as having a practical purpose, as a guide to life.
Throughout India’s history, philosophy has been bound up with religion; many of the most sacred ancient books asked philosophical questions. A good example is the Creation Hymn in the Rig Veda, written more than three thousand years ago (Vedas comprise the entire body of Hindu sacred writings). Unlike the Bible’s confident opening, "In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth," the Indian hymn is full of doubt: "Where this world has come from, perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not. The one who looks down on it, in the highest heaven, only he knows – or perhaps he does not know."
Upanishads
Indian philosophy really begins with the Upanishads (that is, "sessions" or "teachings"), a group of religious texts dating from around 900 to 500 BCE. These accounts, in prose and verse, of the teachings of gurus (teachers) contain many different ideas about life. One idea is that the world, which is one of constant change, is an illusion, hiding a deeper unchanging reality. The goal of life is to see through illusions to a deeper truth, to find a way of uniting the atman (individual soul) with the brahman (unchanging soul of the universe).
Six Schools
Over the years, the Upanishads were interpreted in different ways; as a result, six philosophical schools, or darshanas (viewpoints), developed. Each taught different ideas and practiced different techniques. One common characteristic was the use of short, memorable sentences, called sutras (threads), to help people remember the teachings.
Samkhya (which means "counting") is the oldest school, founded by Kapila in the seventh century BCE. The school taught that all things come from two separate principles, Praktri (matter), which is always changing, and Purusa (person), which is unchanging.
Vaisheshika ("individual characteristics"), developed by Kanada in the third century BCE, was an attempt to work out the structure of reality. Kanada said that everything in the universe is composed of nine basic substances: earth, water, fire, air, ether, space, time, self, and mind.
Nyaya ("analysis") was founded by Aksapadama Gautama in the second century BCE. Nyaya and Vaishesika had similar teachings, but Nyaya stressed clear thinking and logical argument as ways to see through the world of illusion.
Yoga ("union"), created by Patanjali in the third century BCE, was a system of mental and physical discipline using meditation, breath control, and posture to free the mind.
Mimamsa ("inquiry"), developed by Jaimini in the second century BCE, was the school least concerned with finding new ideas. Instead, it used the Vedas, the ancient hymns, as well as the Upanishads, to work out religious rituals and proper ways of behavior.
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THE CHANDOGYA UPANISHAD, ONE OF THE WORLD’S OLDEST PHILOSOPHICAL WORKS, ARGUES THAT A PERSON NEEDS TO FREE THE MIND FROM THE BODY, WHICH IS SEEN AS A TYPE OF PRISON: This body is mortal, always held by death. It is the home of the Self, which is immortal. In the body, the Self is the victim of pleasure and pain. So long as one is identified with the body, there is no end of pleasure and pain. But neither pleasure nor pain touches one who is not identified with the body. CHANDOGYA UPANISHAD, 8.12.1
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Vedanta ("end of the Vedas") was also closely based on both the Vedas and Upanishads. Its most influential teacher, Shankara (788–820 CE), elaborated on the Upanishad idea that there is only one reality. All distinctions, such as those made by the Vaisheshika school, are due to ignorance, or maya. One finds freedom by removing this ignorance. Vedanta has been the most influential school and is still followed by many Hindus.
