| Abbasids dynasty of caliphs formed by descendants of Mohammed’s uncle Abbas; ruled from Baghdad (750–1258 CE) until it was sacked by Mongols. Accorded a purely religious function in Egypt, Abbasids held power there from 1261 to 1517 CE. |
| Abrittus site of battle in which the Roman emperor Decius was defeated and killed by the Goths in 251 CE; modern Razgrad, Bulgaria. |
| Achaemenids Persian 27th dynasty of Egypt (525–404 BCE); founded by Cambyses II of Persia and named after his family, the Achaemenids. Darius I was a member of this dynasty. |
| acropolis fortified part of an ancient Greek city. The most famous such fortress is the Acropolis in Athens, where various large temples were built, including the Parthenon. |
| Actium place on the Greek northwest coast near where Octavian defeated the fleet of Antony and Cleopatra in 31 BCE. This victory gave Octavian definitive power as Roman emperor. |
| adobe type of brick made from sunbaked mud and straw. |
| Adonis in Greek mythology, a young mortal man of outstanding beauty; favorite of Aphrodite. |
| Adrianople site of battle in 378 CE in which 20,000 Visigoths defeated and killed the Roman emperor Valens and most of his troops; present-day Edirne, Turkey. |
| aedilis government officials in the Roman republic; equivalent to magistrate. Aediles oversaw public order, the market, water, grain supplies, and games. Initially, they were officers at the temple of Diana in the Latin League. |
| Aegean Sea part of the Mediterranean Sea that separates mainland Greece from Asia Minor (part of modern Turkey). |
| Aeneas mythical hero who escaped the ruins of Troy and settled in Italy. His story is the subject of Virgil’s epic poem the Aeneid. |
| Ahura Mazda Zoroastrian god of light and truth. |
| ajaw hereditary Mayan monarch who ruled a city-state. |
| Akhetaton city built by Akhenaton to replace the old Egyptian capital at Thebes; modern Amarna, Egypt. |
| Akkadians Semitic people who flourished in the third millennium BCE; named after Akkad, the capital of their empire. |
| Alans originally a Persian steppe people who settled in Scythia in the fourth century BCE. Conquered by the Huns, they later became allies. |
| Alba Longa city in southern Latium; considered the mother city of Rome; according to legend, freed by Romulus and Remus from a usurper; destroyed around 650 BCE. |
| Albigensians Christian heretics in southern France in the 12th and 13th centuries CE. They were attacked by the Albigensian Crusade in 1209 CE and were finally destroyed by the Inquisition. |
| Alemanni southern Germanic people; threatened Roman borders and invaded Gaul in the third century CE; conquered eastern Gaul in the fourth century CE; defeated by the Frankish king Clovis I. |
| Alexandria greatest city of the ancient world. It lies on the Mediterranean Sea on the western edge of the delta of the Nile River and was founded in 332 BCE by Alexander the Great. |
| Allah Arabic word for God. |
| Almohads Islamic reformers from northern Africa who drove the Almoravids out of southern Spain in 1146 CE, establishing a strong caliphate. |
| Almoravids fundamental Muslim tribe from the southern Sahara who conquered northern Africa and aided the Muslims in Córdoba against the Christians between 1086 and 1146 CE. |
| Amarna Letters archive of clay tablets written in Babylonian cuneiform script; found at Akhetaton. |
| Ameratsu Japanese sun goddess from whom the imperial family claims direct descent. |
| Amorites Semitic people who invaded Mesopotamia from the north and northwest around 2000 BCE. They were slowly absorbed into the Mesopotamian population. |
| Amulius mythical usurper of his older brother, Numitor, as king of Alba Longa; separated his niece, Rea Silvia, from her twin children, Romulus and Remus. |
| Anatolia another name for Asia Minor (part of modern Turkey). |
| Angkor Wat temple complex in Khmer capital; built around 1100 CE; famous monument in present-day Cambodia. |
| Antigonids descendants of Demetrius Poliorcetes; ruling dynasty of Macedonia from 306 to 168 BCE. |
| Anubis ancient Egyptian god of the dead; depicted as a jackal or as a man with the head of a jackal. |
| apanage region in the French Empire controlled by the younger brothers of the French king. Burgundy was an apanage until the Hundred Years’ War. |
| Apennines range of hills and mountains that forms the spine of the Italian Peninsula. |
| Apollo Greek god of the sun, oracles, music, poetry, and justice; son of Zeus. The god of medicine, Apollo could also choose to inflict disease as punishment. |
| Aquae Sextiae Roman city in Gaul; modern Aix-en-Provence, France. |
| Aquileia city in northeastern Italy; founded as a Roman colony in 181 BCE to prevent barbarian incursions. |
| Aquitania area of Gaul between the Pyrenees and the Garonne River. |
| Arabia desert peninsula lying to the east of the Mediterranean Sea. |
| Aragon Christian kingdom in northeastern Spain, south of the Pyrenees. |
| Aramaeans Semitic people who invaded southern Mesopotamia (Babylonia) around 1100 BCE. They slowly assumed the Babylonian culture and constituted a large part of the population. |
| Aramaic Semitic language that was widely spoken in western Asia until displaced by Greek after the conquests of Alexander the Great. |
| Arcadia mountainous region of the central Peloponnese, Greece. |
| archons magistrates in Athens, beginning around the seventh century BCE. Elected annually, their duties comprised legislation, the dispensation of justice, the conduct of religion, and military affairs. |
| Arianism doctrine of fourth-century-CE theologian Arius; held that Jesus Christ was not of the same substance as God, but merely the best of created beings. |
| Ariminum town on Adriatic coast of Italy; site of modern city of Rimini. |
| Armenia region of the Transcaucasus between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. |
| Armorica Latin name for north-western Gaul, now Brittany. |
| Arretium ancient town in western central Italy; now the city of Arezzo. |
| Artemisium, Battle of Persian naval victory over the Greeks in 480 BCE. |
| Aryans prehistoric inhabitants of Iran and northern India. |
| Ascanius mythical son of Aeneas; according to legend, the founder of Alba Longa, a city near Rome. |
| Assyrians people of northern Mesopotamia whose independent state, established in the 14th century BCE, became a major power in the region. |
| Astarte Canaanite and Phoenician goddess of procreation, fertility, and love. She was originally equated with the Semitic goddess Ishtar and later associated with the Greek goddess Aphrodite. Astarte was also connected with Baal and was worshipped as the mother-goddess until Roman times. |
| astrolabe device used by sailors to take sightings of the sun and stars for navigational purposes. The astrolabe was circular in shape and was marked in degrees around its circumference. Sailors used astrolabes to calculate their ships’ latitude (their distance to the north or the south of the equator). |
| Athens preeminent city-state of ancient Greece. |
| Aton Egyptian sun god Re when worshipped in the form of the disk of the sun. |
| Attica region of central Greece. Its chief city was Athens. |
| Australopithecus "southern ape"; an upright-walking hominid from around 4 million years ago; found in Africa. |
| avatar from avatara, Sanskrit for "descent"; in Hinduism, the incarnation of a deity in human or animal form. The term usually refers to any of the 10 principal manifestations of the god Vishnu. |
| ayllu administrative area within the Inca Empire. |
| Aztecs Mesoamerican people who controlled a large empire in central and southern Mexico from the 14th to the 16th century CE. The Aztec Empire came to an end in 1521 CE, when it came under attack from the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés. |
| ba in ancient Egyptian religion, one of the three main aspects of the soul, along with ka (the sum of a person’s physical and intellectual qualities) and akh (the spirit in the hereafter). |
| Babylon city in southern Mesopotamia that was the center of an Amorite empire under Hammurabi. Later, Babylon continued as the cultural and political capital of the region. From 612 to 539 BCE, Babylon was the capital of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. |
| Babylonian Captivity 14th-century-CE period when the popes resided in Avignon because Italy was divided by feuds among noblemen. Avignon became a bureaucratic center of corrupt popes and prelates. |
| Bacchiads aristocratic family that ruled the city-state of Corinth in the seventh century BCE. |
| Bactrians people from the ancient country of Bactria, which lay between the mountains of the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya (ancient Oxus River) in what is now part of Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. |
| Badr, Battle of battle near Medina in 624 CE that was Mohammed’s first military victory. It damaged Meccan prestige, strengthened the political position of Muslims in Medina, and established Islam in Arabia. |
| Baghdad city built by Al-Mansur to appease the Persian Muslims; center of trade, industry, and Persian culture; destroyed by the Mongols. |
| Balearic Islands group of islands in the western Mediterranean Sea. The largest are today known as Mallorca, Minorca, Ibiza, and Formentera. |
| Bantu people of Africa, south of the equator, who speak related languages. After around 1000 BCE, they occupied large portions of Africa, leaving the area around Lake Chad and mixing with agricultural people. |
| basileus title of the Byzantine emperor, regarded as the head of Christendom and God’s representative on Earth. |
| Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom) library and translation institute in Abbasid Baghdad. |
| Bedouin nomadic people of the Arabian Desert; converted to Islam around 622 CE; dominated non-Islamic population under the Umayyads; forced to yield power to the Abbasid dynasty around 750 CE. |
| bell-beaker people Neolithic people who spread from Spain to northern Africa and western and central Europe between 2600 and 2000 BCE. |
| Berbers descendants of the pre-Arab inhabitants of northern Africa. |
| Black Death plague that originated in Asia and ravaged Europe between 1347 and 1351 CE, killing around one-third of the population. |
| Blues political party in Constantinople that organized important horse races against the Greens. Despite the lack of a clear political program, they had great influence on politics and religion. |
| Bosporus strait, 19 miles (30 km) long, that joins the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara. |
| Brahma paramount Indian god; preacher of the Vedas; appears in Hinduism as part of the trinity of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the restorer, and Shiva the destroyer. |
| broadside simultaneous discharge of all the guns on one side of a ship. |
| bronze copper-tin alloy widely used by 1700 BCE. |
| Bronze Age period during which bronze became the most important basic material; began around 3500 BCE in western Asia and around 1900 BCE in Europe. |
| Buddhism religion founded by Siddharta Gautama, called the Buddha; rejected much of Hinduism, including priestly authority, the Vedic scriptures, sacrificial practices, and the caste system. Its goal is nirvana (release from all desire and from the cycle of life, death, and rebirth). The major schools of Buddhism are Theravada and Mahayana. |
| Bulgaria region and nation of the Balkans that constituted the strongest empire in eastern Europe in the 9th and 10th centuries CE. Incorporated into the Byzantine Empire in 1018 CE, Bulgaria rebelled in 1185 CE, forming another empire, which collapsed in the 14th century CE. |
| Burgundy region of eastern France that became a powerful independent state in the 15th century CE. Its main city is Dijon. |
| Busta Gallorum site of decisive battle in 552 CE where the Byzantine general Narses defeated the Goths, who were led by their Christian king, Totila; modern Gualdo Tadino, Italy. |
| Buyids native dynasty that ruled in western Iran and Iraq in the period between the Arab and Turkish conquests (945–1055 CE). |
| Byblos first city in pre-Phoenician Levant to trade with Egypt. Around 1200 BCE, it was superseded as a trading center by Sidon and Tyre. Byblos was the center of the Astarte-Tammuz cult in Roman times. |
| Byzantium ancient Greek city on the shore of the Bosporus; later known as Constantinople; modern Istanbul. |
| Calais port on the north coast of France; conquered by the English king Edward III after the Battle of Crécy in 1346 CE; remained an English bridgehead on the mainland of Europe until the 16th century CE. |
| Caledonia area of northern Britain; present-day Scotland. |
| caliph from khalifah, Arabic for "successor"; religious and political leader of Islam; successor to Mohammed. Competing caliphs divided the Islamic states. |
| caliphate office and realm held by a caliph. |
| Campania region of southern Italy between the modern cities of Naples and Salerno. |
| Canaanites Semitic tribes who settled in Palestine and the western Levant in the third millennium BCE and mixed with the native population. They maintained separate city-states. Around 1200 BCE, their territory was infiltrated by Israelites and Philistines. |
| Cannae town in southeastern Italy; site of the worst defeat in Roman history. Hannibal surrounded a Roman army there and destroyed it in 216 BCE. |
| Capetians ruling house of France from 987 to 1328 CE. The Capetians all descended from Robert the Strong (died 866 CE). |
| Cappadocia district in east-central Anatolia; now part of Turkey. |
| Capua major Greek colony in southern Italy; first Greek colony to side with Hannibal in the Second Punic War. |
| caravel small, highly maneuverable, trading ship. |
| Carchemish Hittite trading city on the Euphrates River. After the fall of the Hittite Empire around 1200 BCE, it became the most important Neo-Hittite state. Carchemish was later conquered by the Assyrians. |
| Carpi ancient Dacian people who inhabited the Carpathian Mountains in modern Romania. |
| carrack type of trading ship that was characterized by a large stern, a large central rudder, and three or more masts. |
| Carthage city in northern Africa on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea; now a suburb of Tunis. |
| Carthusians monastic order that stressed penance, solitude, and asceticism; founded at the end of the 11th century CE. |
| cartouche oval frame enclosing the hieroglyphs of the name of an Egyptian sovereign. |
| cassava plant grown by the Maya, who used its sap to make an alcoholic drink. |
| Castile originally a Christian kingdom in northern Spain; in the 11th century CE, annexed León and spread Castilian culture throughout the Iberian Peninsula. |
| Cathars heretical Christian sect that flourished in western Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries CE. The Cathari believed that there are two principles, one good and one evil, and that the material world is evil. |
| Celts name given to a group of people occupying central and western Europe (from the British Isles to Hungary) by 1000 BCE. Bearers of the Celtic civilization are the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures; the Urnfield culture also has Celtic characteristics. |
| censor office in the Roman republic to which two ex-consuls were elected for five-year terms. They estimated the number of citizens for purposes of categorization, taxation, and military service, and they judged moral behavior. |
| Ceres Roman goddess of agriculture. |
| Chaeronea, Battle of conflict in which Philip II of Macedon defeated Thebes and Athens in 338 BCE. |
| Chalcedon ancient port on the Bosporus; overshadowed by its proximity to Byzantium. |
| Chalcolithic period time when copper first began to be used to make tools and weapons, prior to the Bronze Age. |
| Chaldeans Aramaean people from southern Mesopotamia who caused the fall of Assyria in the seventh century BCE. |
| Cham Austronesian-speaking carvers and temple builders who prospered until they were subdued by the Vietnamese in the 15th century CE. |
| chaski runners who were used to relay messages from one part of the Inca Empire to another. The runners were stationed at regular intervals along the empire’s roads. |
| chinampa artificial island created by the Aztecs in Lake Texcoco. The Aztecs made chinampas out of mud and used them to grow crops such as corn. |
| choregi Greek sponsors of theatrical productions and competitions. |
| Christendom in the Middle Ages, the Christian world of western Europe. The main threat to Christendom came from the Islamic empires of western Asia and northern Africa. |
| Cimbrians people who invaded southern France and Spain around 111 BCE; defeated by Gaius Marius. |
| Ciompi Rebellion uprising of Florentine workers in the woolen industry in 1378 CE. |
| Cistercians monastic order founded in 1098 CE in France. |
| Classic period period of American history that lasted roughly from 300 to 900 CE. |
| Clermont, Council of public meeting called by Pope Urban II to announce the First Crusade. |
| Cloaca Maxima the first public sewer in Rome; completed in the third century BCE. |
| Cluny abbey near Mâcon, Burgundy, France, founded in 910 CE. The Cluniac movement that originated there strongly influenced the Roman Catholic Church, particularly monasticism, for the next 250 years. |
| codex (plural: codices) book made by the Aztecs and Maya; provided a largely pictorial record of their cultures; produced both before and after the Spanish conquest in the 16th century CE. |
| comedy originally, any play or literary composition with a nontragic ending. |
| comos procession of Greek citizens during which they wore masks and danced and sang; often part of festivals in honor of Dionysus. |
| Concordat of Worms compromise in 1122 CE between Pope Calixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V on investiture. The church was accorded the right to elect and invest bishops but only in the presence of the emperor, who retained the right to confer any land and wealth attached to the bishopric. |
| conquistador leader of the Spanish forces that conquered parts of Central America and South America in the 16th century CE. |
| Constance, Council of council (1414–1418 CE) that ended the schism and forced a number of popes to abdicate. |
| Constantinople name for Byzantium (present-day Istanbul), which became the (Christian) residence of the emperor Constantine in 330 CE. In 395 CE, it became the capital of the eastern Roman Empire. |
| consul one of two co-leaders of republican Rome. Each consul served only one year in office at a time. |
| copper reddish brown metallic element; chemical symbol Cu. |
| Corcyra ancient name for the Greek island of Corfu. |
| Corinth city of the Peloponnese, around 50 miles (80 km) west of Athens. |
| Corinthian War conflict that lasted from 395 to 387 BCE between Sparta and an alliance among Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos, initially supported by Persia. |
| Corupedium, Battle of fought in 281 BCE, the decisive confrontation between the successors to Alexander the Great. |
| Council of 500 originally conceived by Cleisthenes and fully realized by Solon, a political decision-making body in Athens consisting of 10 groups, each of 50 men, chosen by lot. |
| Crannon, Battle of confrontation in 322 BCE in which Macedonian forces under Antipater defeated rebellious Greek forces led by the Athenians. |
| Crécy town near the northern coast of France; site where the French army, consisting of knights, was destroyed in 1346 CE by the English infantry, opening the way for Edward III to conquer Calais. |
| crop rotation farming system in which fields are divided into groups (typically of three) in which a different one is left fallow every year so that it may regenerate. |
| Croton Greek colony in the south of the Italian Peninsula in which Pythagoras settled around 530 BCE; the modern city of Crotone, Italy. |
| crusades military expeditions undertaken by Christians from the end of the 11th century to the end of the 13th century CE, primarily to recover the Holy Land from Muslim control. |
| Ctesiphon capital of the ancient Persian Empire. |
| cuneiform script consisting of characters pressed into clay with the use of styluses. It was used by the Sumerians and the Semites, though created by the native Mesopotamians. It started as images but evolved into a syllabic script. |
| cuprite mineral composed of copper oxide (chemical formula CuO); minor ore of the metal copper. |
| Cuzco capital of the Inca Empire. |
| Cycladic civilization Bronze Age civilization from around 3300 to 1000 BCE on the Greek Cyclades islands. |
| Cynics from the Greek kunikoi. Followers of Diogenes and Antisthenes, they protested the material interests of established society. Holding virtue to be the only good, they stressed independence from worldly needs and pleasures and led austere lives. |
| Cyrenaica coastal district of southern Mediterranean Sea; former Greek colony; now part of Libya. |
| Dacia area of the Carpathian Mountains and Transylvania, in present-day Romania. |
| Damascus ancient capital of a city-state in Roman times; conquered variously by David of Israel, Assyrian Tiglath-pileser III in 732 BCE, and Alexander the Great in 333–332 BCE; part of the Seleucid kingdom until taken by Pompey the Great in 64 BCE. Made a Christian bishopric in the first century CE, it was taken over by Muslims in 635 CE and by Turks in 1056 CE. Damascus was besieged by the Christians in 1148 CE. In 1154 CE, it fell to the Egyptians. It was the headquarters of Saladin during the Third Crusade. |
| Danegeld direct tax introduced by Aethelred the Unready, an Anglo-Saxon king; paid as annual tribute to the Vikings (Danes). |
| Danelaw Viking kingdom in northeastern England. |
| Danube river of eastern Europe that rises in the Black Forest in Germany and flows 1,770 miles (2,850 km) through the Balkans to the Black Sea. |
| dead reckoning system used by sailors to calculate the position of a ship in terms of longitude. |
| Delhi Sultanate principal Muslim sultanate in northern India from 1206 to 1526 CE. |
| Delian League (477–404 BCE) voluntary alliance of Athens and Ionian city-states in Asia Minor, the Aegean islands, and colonies in Thrace to rid themselves of Persians remaining after the Persian War; dominated by Athens; dissolved after the Peloponnesian War. |
| Delos one of the Cyclades, a group of islands in the Aegean Sea. |
| Delphi city in central Greece; site of an Apollo sanctuary and an oracle. The utterances of Pythia, the priestess of the oracle, had great influence on personal and political life. |
| Demeter Greek goddess of the earth and agriculture. |
| democracy from the Greek demos (people) and kratein (to rule); government by the people, either directly or through elected representatives. This form of government arose at the end of the sixth century BCE in Athens. |
| diadochs military commanders who succeeded Alexander the Great. |
| dictator magistrate appointed by the Roman senate; given unlimited authority in matters of state and war for six months. |
| Dionysia Greek annual festival in honor of Dionysus; characterized by processions, poetry competitions, and theatrical performances. |
| Dionysus Greek god of wine, ecstasy, reproduction, life force, chaos, and death. |
| dithyramb ancient Greek hymn of praise to the god Dionysus. |
| Dnieper fourth longest river in Europe; flows 1,367 miles (2,200 km) from the Valdai Hills to the west of Moscow to the Black Sea. |
| Dniester river of eastern Europe that rises on the north side of the Carpathian Mountains and flows for 840 miles (1,352 km) south and east (through modern Ukraine and Moldova) to the Black Sea. |
| Dodona site, near Epirus in northwestern Greece, of an oracle devoted to the god Zeus. |
| dolmen Neolithic burial chamber constructed from two or more great stone slabs set edgewise in the earth and a flat stone roof. |
| Domesday Book land registry in which all property of the inhabitants of England was registered for tax purposes; introduced during the reign of William I. |
| Dominican member of a Christian order of friars founded by Saint Dominic of Spain in 1216 CE; also known as the Black Friars. |
| Donatists northern African Christians who believed that the holy sacraments could be administered only by priests who were without sin; named for their leader, Donatus (died c. 355 CE); outlawed as heretics. |
| Dong Son culture that emerged around 2000 BCE; by 500 BCE, proficient in metallurgy and at producing distinctive bronze drums; named for a village in northern Vietnam where artifacts were first discovered. |
| Dorians people from Macedonia and northern Greece who conquered parts of the Peloponnese and Crete between 1200 and 1000 BCE. |
| Early Dynastic period era of Egyptian history, also known as the Archaic period, when the pharaohs developed an effective system of ruling the whole of Egypt; lasted from around 2925 to 2650 BCE. |
| earthenware vessels and containers made of baked clay; in widespread use for cooking and storage by Neolithic cultures. |
| Eboracum Roman name for their fortification in northern England; later became the Viking town of Yorvick and finally the modern city of York. |
| ecclesia the tribal meeting of Athens open to all citizens that, after Cleisthenes’ reforms, made the final political decisions on internal and foreign affairs. |
| Elam ancient country in western Asia, roughly equivalent to modern southwestern Iran. |
| Elea ancient town in Italy founded by Greek refugees; famous for its school of philosophy; modern Velia. |
| Eleusinian Mysteries secret religious rites in ancient Greece that involved the worship of the goddess Demeter. |
| Eleusis city on the Greek coast near Athens where mysteries were held between around 600 and 400 BCE. |
| ensi governor of a Sumerian city-state; temple king and ruler of the city on behalf of the deity and the temple. |
| Ephesus Ionian city in ancient Anatolia (part of modern Turkey). |
| Ephesus, Council of meeting of Christian leaders in 431 CE that confirmed Mary’s status as the Mother of God. |
| Epic of Gilgamesh ancient poem written in the Akkadian language. The earliest surviving written version was inscribed in cuneiform script in the seventh century BCE. |
| Epicureanism philosophy founded by Epicurus (341–270 BCE). Its central tenets were the pursuit of happiness and the avoidance of pain. |
| Epidamnus colony on the Adriatic coast in part of what is now Albania; founded in the fifth century BCE by Greeks from Corcyra. |
| Epidaurus small but important city-state of ancient Greece; situated in the northeastern Peloponnese. |
| Epirus ancient kingdom occupying the coastal region of northwestern Greece and southern Albania. |
| Etruscans ancient people of central Italy whose civilization emerged around 900 BCE, before the founding of Rome. |
| Euphrates river of western Asia that flows from the mountains of western Asia to the Persian Gulf. Its lower reaches form the western edge of Mesopotamia. |
| Eurymedon river in Asia Minor; site of a major battle in 466 BCE between the Persians and the Delian League. |
| Ezo northern part of Japan roughly coextensive with modern Hokkaido. |
| fasces symbol of the Roman magistrates’ legal authority; ax head projecting from a bundle of wooden sticks tied together with a red strap. |
| Fatimids Shi’ite dynasty of caliphs in northern Africa (909–1171 CE); descended from Mohammed’s daughter Fatima; conquered Egypt and founded Cairo around 969 CE. |
| Fifth Crusade (1217–1221 CE) expedition that conquered Lisbon in 1217 CE and Damietta in Egypt in 1219 CE. Against the pope’s wishes, the crusaders tried to conquer Egyptian territory in exchange for Jerusalem, but their attempt ended in failure. |
| First Crusade (1095–1099 CE) led by Godfrey of Bouillon and Raymond of Toulouse; conquered Edessa, Tripoli, Antioch, and Jerusalem, making them Christian kingdoms. |
| Flanders region on the North Sea coast; made part of Charlemagne’s empire in the 9th century CE. Under independent counts, it developed into a regional power. In the 11th century CE, the counts of Flanders were vassals for both the French crown and the Holy Roman Empire. A duchy of the French king, beginning in the 12th century CE, it was economically dependent on England for its textile manufacture. When Edward III prohibited the export of wool in 1337 CE, Flanders rebelled against France; the uprising was crushed in 1340 CE. |
| flint hard type of stone found in calcium and chalk layers; easily chipped to make tools; widely used in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages. |
| flower war war waged by the Aztecs with the specific goal of capturing people for sacrifice. |
| foederati "the federated"; foreigners allied with the Romans; populated and patrolled land at imperial borders; provided troops for the Roman army. |
| Fourth Crusade (1202–1204 CE) expedition by French knights; captured Byzantium with the aid of Venice and founded a western-style empire. |
| Franciscan member of a Christian order of friars founded by Saint Francis of Assisi in 1209 CE. Originally, Franciscans made a vow to adhere to a life of strict poverty, but this requirement was later modified. |
| fresco type of painting in which the paint is applied to wet plaster; usually decorated walls or ceilings. |
| Frigidus River, Battle of battle in which Theodosius defeated Eugenius in 394 CE, thereby becoming emperor of both the eastern and western Roman empires. |
| Fujiwara period (858–1060 CE) era during which Japan was ruled by the Fujiwara family. |
| funnel-beaker culture culture that flourished around 2500 BCE in northern and central Europe; named for the characteristic shape of its earthenware. |
| Galatia ancient district in central Anatolia (part of modern Turkey). |
| Ganesh Hindu god. |
| Garonne river of southwestern France that rises in the Spanish central Pyrenees and flows 357 miles (575 km) to its confluence with the Dordogne River. From that point to the Atlantic Ocean, 45 miles (72 km) to the north, the estuary of the combined rivers is known as the Gironde. |
| Gaugamela, Battle of military confrontation in 331 BCE in which Alexander the Great defeated Darius III of Persia. |
| Germanic tribes people from northwestern Europe who migrated southward, beginning around 200 BCE. |
| Ghibellines (Waiblingen) supporters of the House of Hohenstaufen and proponents of the rule of a strong Holy Roman emperor over the church; ultimately defeated by their long-term enemies, the Guelphs. |
| Gnosticism philosophical and religious movement that was prominent in the Greco-Roman world in the second century CE. It had a profound influence on developing Christianity. |
| Golden Horde western part of the Mongol Empire. At its peak, it included most of European Russia. |
| Golden Horn inlet of the Bosporus that forms a natural harbor at Constantinople (modern Istanbul). |
| Gordian knot according to Greek legend, a complex knot that could only be untied by the man destined to become king of Asia. The young Alexander the Great cut it with one blow of his sword. |
| Goths a German group in the third century CE. Living in Dacia, they were feared plunderers threatening the Roman borders. In the fourth century CE, the West Goths were driven back by the Huns. The Romans allowed them to settle below the Danube River. In 410 CE, they attacked Rome under the leadership of Alaric. The East Goths were conquered by the Huns and moved to Hungary. |
| grammar school educational establishment that was open to secular pupils as well as trainee priests. |
| Granicus River, Battle of military confrontation between Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire near Troy in Asia Minor in 334 BCE. |
| Great Swabian League alliance between the cities of Swabia, the Rhineland, Bavaria, and Franconia; formed under the protection of the emperor Frederick III in 1488 CE. |
| Great Wall of China defensive barrier that extended for 4,160 miles (6,700 km) along the country’s northern and eastern frontiers; completed in 204 BCE. |
| Greek fire secret Byzantine weapon, used especially against Arabs at sieges of Constantinople in the seventh and eighth centuries CE. Its main constituent, naphtha (a highly combustible hydrocarbon), burned spontaneously when sprayed onto enemy ships. |
| Greens party in Constantinople influential in politics and religion; organized horse races against the Blues party; comprised traders and working-class people. |
| Guelphs (Welfs) supporters of the House of Guelph and proponents of a monarchy with little influence, powerful vassals, and an autonomous church. From 1125 CE, they fought the Ghibellines and eventually defeated the last scion of the Hohenstaufen family. |
| guilds organizations of merchants and artisans; supervised working conditions and the quality and price of manufacture. Only guild members were allowed to practice in the cities. |
| Gupta Empire dynasty that ruled much of India (c. 320–550 CE) after a period of instability following the fall of the Mauryans. |
| Gur town founded by the Sassanian king Ardashir I to commemorate his victory over the Parthian king Artabanus; modern Firuzabad, Iran. |
| Gutians Iranian mountain people who invaded the Akkadian Empire repeatedly between around 2230 and 2100 BCE. |
| Hades god of the underworld and brother of Zeus; also the name of the underworld itself. |
| Hadith Arabic for "story"; companion book to the Koran; guide for Muslim daily life; details incidents in Mohammed’s life and his maxims. |
| Hagia Sophia great domed Church of the Holy Wisdom in Constantinople; designed by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus; built between 532 and 537 CE under Emperor Justinian. |
| Hallstatt culture central European culture of the late Bronze and early Iron ages; flourished around 800 to 500 BCE. |
| hand-ax Paleolithic tool originally made of flint. Increasingly made of other stones, it was refined throughout the Paleolithic period. |
| Han dynasty ruling dynasty of China (206 BCE–220 CE); restored the agrarian economy and introduced Confucianism as the state religion; defeated the Huns and undertook expeditions across the Chinese borders. Government tasks were fulfilled by state officials from the class of large landowners called mandarins. |
| Hanseatic League union of free cities in northern Germany that promoted their own interests in trade; formed in the 12th century CE. The leading Hanseatic centers included Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck. The league later grew to include non-German cities, such as Riga, Stockholm, and Szczecin. |
| Hanukkah Jewish midwinter festival that commemorates the restoration of Jewish rites in the temple at Jerusalem by Judas Maccabaeus. |
| Hausa people of northwestern Nigeria and southern Niger. |
| hegira Arabic for "flight"; journey of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina, September 20, 622 CE; used as the first date of the Muslim calendar; the starting point of Islam. |
| Heiji Disturbance confrontation in Japan in 1159 CE in which the Taira clan overcame the Minamoto clan. The Taira became the major power in the land for a generation. |
| Heijo city in Nara that became Japan’s first fixed capital in 710 CE. The capital had previously moved around with the emperor. |
| Hejaz region of Arabian Peninsula along the Red Sea coast. |
| Heliopolis city of ancient Egypt and site of a great temple to the sun god Re. |
| Helladic culture Bronze Age culture from around 3300 to 1000 BCE on the Greek mainland. |
| hemlock poisonous herb; commonly thought to have been the cause of Socrates’s death. |
| Hephthalites nomadic people, originally from the Mongolian steppes, who created an empire in Persia and India in the sixth century CE. |
| Heracles greatest and strongest of Greek mythological heroes; also known as Hercules. |
| Hermes Greek god of travelers, shepherds, trade, and cunning. The son of Zeus and the messenger of the gods, he guided souls to the underworld. |
| hieroglyphs oldest Egyptian script. It was originally based on images, but later, as a result of the need to represent abstract concepts, it developed into a combination of ideograms, syllable signs, and letters. |
| Hinduism predominant religion in India, originating from Brahmanism; characterized by belief in many gods headed by Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu. |
| Hittites people from Asia Minor who spoke an Indo-European language and settled in Asia Minor around 2000 BCE. They expanded their territory politically southward into Syria, Mesopotamia, and Canaan between 1650 and 1350 BCE. The Hittite Empire disappeared around 1200 BCE after the rise of Assyria and invasions by the Sea Peoples. |
| Hohenstaufens German dynasty that ruled the Holy Roman Empire in the 12th and 13th centuries CE. |
| Holy Roman Empire title adopted in the 13th century CE in an effort to reinstate the Roman Empire. Mainly comprised of German states, its first emperor, Otto the Great, was crowned in 962 CE. By 1100 CE, the empire included the kingdoms of Italy, Bohemia, Burgundy, and Germany. It lasted until 1806 CE. |
| Homo erectus hominid who walked upright and lived between 500,000 and 150,000 years ago in Africa, Asia, and Europe; first hominid species to be found outside Africa; includes Java man (Pithecanthropus) and Peking man; used tools, made shelters, and utilized fires. |
| Homo habilis hominid who walked upright and lived around 2 million years ago, at the same time as Australopithecus; first hominid species to be found in association with manufactured tools. |
| Homo sapiens sapiens modern man; developed around 100,000 years ago; displaced Neanderthals around 30,000 years ago. |
| hoplites soldiers in the Greek heavy infantry, armed with swords, lances, and the large round shields known as hoplons. |
| Horatius legendary Roman hero who singlehandedly defended a bridge in Rome against the forces of Lars Porsenna and the entire Etruscan army. |
| Hormuz island in the Strait of Hormuz, between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; site of battle in which Ardashir defeated the Parthians and killed Artabanus in 224 CE. |
| Horus Egyptian sun god and son of Osiris; represented as a falcon. |
| huaca sacred object worshipped by the Incas. Huacas could take the form of natural phenomena such as rocks, human-made objects, or the mummified remains of sacred people. |
| humanism school of thought that stressed the artistic, intellectual, and scientific achievements of humankind. With its secular outlook, humanism contrasted with earlier ways of looking at the world that centered around humanity’s relationship with God. |
| Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453 CE) war between France and England, which still possessed areas in France. The immediate cause was a dispute about the succession to the French throne. By 1453 CE, England had lost all territory in France except for Calais. |
| Huns central Asiatic people noted for horsemanship and ferocity in battle; drove the Visigoths from Ukraine (c. 370 CE); conquered eastern and central Europe in the fifth century CE; seized western Europe under Attila (c. 450 CE). |
| Hurrians tribe from east-central Asia that settled in northern Mesopotamia around 1800 BCE. The Hurrians founded the Mitanni Empire ruled by a militarily superior Indo-European elite. After around 1200 BCE, they settled in Urartu and from there conquered parts of Syria and Phoenicia. |
| Hwang He (Hwang Ho; Yellow River) China’s second longest river; flows for 3,395 miles (5,464 km) from the Plateau of Tibet to the Yellow Sea. |
| Hyksos Asiatic people who settled in Egypt during the 17th century BCE. They later ruled the kingdom. |
| Iberians non-Celtic Iron Age people of Spain and southern France. The high point of their culture was from the fifth to the third century BCE. |
| ice ages climatic episodes characterized by a great drop in temperature, the expansion of ice caps at regions of higher latitude, and changes in flora and fauna. |
| I Ching (Yi Jing; Book of Changes) Chinese divination manual; traditionally attributed to Confucius. |
| iconoclasm policy of destroying religious images (icons); introduced in the eighth century CE by the Byzantine emperor Leo III. |
| Il-Khanate Mongol dynasty that ruled in Persia in the 13th and 14th centuries CE. |
| Illyria ancient region of the Balkans; part of modern Albania. |
| imam Arabic for "leader"; the head of the Muslim community. |
| Inanna Sumerian fertility goddess; daughter of Anu (the god of heaven and ruler of the gods). She merged with the Semitic god Ishtar during the Akkadian Empire and became the goddess of love and fertility. |
| Incas people who lived on the west coast of South America and ruled a vast empire that reached the height of its power in the 15th century CE. The empire stretched from present-day Ecuador in the north to central Chile in the south. |
| Indies vague term used by people in the Middle Ages to describe a number of different places in Asia, including China, Japan, and the Spice Islands. Many of the great explorers of the 15th and 16th centuries CE undertook their voyages to try to find a westbound route to the Indies. |
| Indo-European languages common family of European and Asiatic (Indian) languages. |
| Indus river of south Asia that flows 1,800 miles (2,900 km) from southwestern Tibet to the Arabian Sea near modern Karachi (Pakistan). |
| interdict papal sanction whereby citizens of the territory of a sinner are excluded from religious ceremonies; allowed the pope to pit the religious populace against the perpetrator. |
| Intiwatana Inca temple associated with the worship of the sun. |
| investiture controversy dispute over the appointment of clergy by lay people. It was resolved in favor of the church at the Concordat of Worms in 1122 CE. |
| Ionia coastal region of southwestern Anatolia (part of modern Turkey) that contained several Greek city-states. |
| Ionians Greek tribe driven from the mainland (except Attica) by the Dorians; settled on the Greek islands and on the west coast of Asia Minor in the ninth century BCE. |
| iron metallic element (chemical symbol Fe) that can be made into tools, weapons, and ornaments. It is extracted from iron ore by heating and hammering it for long periods. Iron was being processed in Anatolia, western Asia, by 3000 BCE. Iron is easier to work with than bronze. |
| Iron Age period during which major tools and weapons were made of iron; followed the Bronze Age. The Hittites formed the first Iron Age culture around 1700 BCE. Between 1200 and 600 BCE, ironworking spread over Asia and Europe. |
| Ishtar Semitic war goddess who merged with Inanna and became the goddess of love and fertility. |
| Islam monotheistic religion worshipping Allah; founded by Mohammed in the seventh century CE. Its tenets are recorded in the Koran. |
| Israelites Semitic tribes who infiltrated Canaan in the second millennium BCE. They probably stayed in Egypt or in the border area between around 1650 and 1214 BCE. After 1200 BCE, they conquered Canaan, according to the Bible. They lived in a loose alliance of tribes but joined under a king around 1000 BCE. |
| isthmus narrow strip of land, bordered on two sides by water, that joins two larger land masses. |
| Jacquerie farmers’ rebellion in 1358 CE led by "Les Jacques," peasants in the region surrounding Paris, against their lords after years of oppression and their defeat by the English at Poitiers; finally crushed by Charles II. |
| Jagiellon dynasty rulers of Poland-Lithuania, Bohemia, and Hungary who wielded great power and influence in east-central Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries CE. |
| Jainism religion of India that teaches a path to spiritual purity and enlightenment through a disciplined mode of life founded on nonviolence to all living creatures; founded by Vardhamana (Mahavira) around the sixth century BCE. |
| Janissaries army of slaves and Christian prisoners of war who were indoctrinated with Turkish culture and military discipline. They stood as the basis for the military successes the Turks enjoyed between 1360 and 1826 CE. Janissary revolts took place from the 17th century CE onward. |
| Jason Greek mythological hero who sailed in the Argo in search of the Golden Fleece. |
| jihad Arabic for "holy war"; Muslim duty to expand Allah’s realm, to propagate Islam; led to the conquering of Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, northern Africa, central Asia, and Spain in the seventh and eighth centuries CE. |
| Jomon period (c. 7500–250 BCE) early era of arts and crafts in Japan. |
| Kaaba Arabic for "cube"; stone cube in Mecca originally considered holy by most Arabs for its more than 300 statues. Mohammed considered it a religious relic of Allah built by Ishmael and condemned the polytheism. Although driven away in 622 CE, he returned to purge it in 629 CE, making it the central temple of Islam. |
| Karbala, Battle of battle in which the Umayyad military defeated the forces of the grandson of the prophet Mohammed. The battle secured the power of the Umayyad dynasty. |
| karma Sanskrit for "fate, work"; a person’s acts and their consequences in a subsequent existence. In Buddhism, karma is considered the result of actions that define the kind of rebirth that occurs, not as punishment, but for evolution. In Hinduism, karma means cause and effect, bearing in this life the consequences of actions taken in previous lives. |
| Khmer ethnolinguistic group that emerged around 800 CE; now constitutes most of the population of Cambodia. |
| Kiev capital of the Russian Empire of Vladimir and Yaroslav; flourishing trade center and seat of the Byzantine Church; destroyed by the Mongols in 1240 CE. |
| Knights Hospitaller society of Christian knights who fought the Muslims. The order grew out of the 11th-century-CE pilgrims’ hospital in the Holy Land. When noblemen of the brotherhood became the leaders, the order took on a military character. |
| Knights Templar religious military order established at the time of the crusades to protect Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land. The order was destroyed in 1307 CE. |
| Knossos Minoan settlement housing a large palace from the Second Palace period until around 1300 BCE. |
| Koran scripture of Islam; regarded by the faithful as being revealed to Mohammed over 22 years and recorded by scribes; written in verses organized into 114 chapters, called suras; contains the history of Mohammed, references to the Bible, and principles of Islamic law. |
| Kush kingdom of southern Egypt; part of modern Sudan. In the Late period, the Kushites ruled Egypt. |
| Lagash Sumerian city-state that constituted an empire in Mesopotamia in the 22nd century BCE. |
| Lapita culture named after a site in New Guinea at which was found a type of fired pottery dating from around 30,000 BCE. |
| lar (plural: lares) Roman family deity; originally gods of the fields. |
| Lars Porsenna legendary sixth-century-BCE Etruscan king who besieged Rome in an unsuccessful attempt to restore a monarchy. |
| La Tène culture Celtic Iron Age culture (c. 500–40 BCE); named for the site in Switzerland at which its artifacts were first discovered. |
| Late period era, from around 671 BCE, when Egypt was ruled by a succession of foreign powers: the Kushites, the Assyrians, the Persians, and finally, in 332 BCE, the Greeks under Alexander the Great. |
| Latin League ethnic religious federation of Latin cities on the Italian Peninsula; fought the Etruscans in the sixth century BCE; abolished in 338 BCE, following rebellion against Roman domination. |
| latitude distance of a place or object to the north or south of the equator; measured in degrees. |
| Latium region of the Italian Peninsula between the Tiber River and the Apennine Hills; the home of the original Latin people. |
| League of the Iroquois Confederation of tribes who lived in the northeast of the present-day United States. The league originally consisted of five tribes—the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. |
| León 10th-century-CE Christian kingdom in northwestern Spain; absorbed by Castile in the 11th century CE. |
| Leptis Magna ancient city in northern Africa on the Mediterranean coast 62 miles (100 km) southeast of modern Tripoli (Libya). |
| lictor attendant who waited on Roman magistrates and carried the ceremonial fasces. |
| Linear A script found on Minoan clay tablets in the palace complexes. Never deciphered, the script is probably a syllabic script and a simplified form of hieroglyphs. |
| Linear B script found on Mycenaean clay tablets on the Greek mainland and in Knossos. It is a syllabic script based on the characters of Linear A. It was not deciphered until 1953 CE. |
| Linearbandceramik culture Neolithic culture of northern and central Europe dating from around 5000 BCE; recognized by its pottery decorations of distinct wavy or zigzag patterns. |
| logogram picture used to represent a word; used by Mesoamerican people such as the Olmecs. |
| Logos divine force—also known as reason—that the Stoics in ancient Greece believed directed the universe and humankind. |
| Loire longest river in France; flows for 634 miles (1,020 km) from the Massif Central north and west to the Atlantic Ocean. |
| Lombard League alliance of Italian cities that rebelled against Frederick I Barbarossa in 1167 CE after he revoked their royal privileges of coinage, tolls, and administration of justice. |
| Lombards central European Germanic people; conquered most of Italy in 568 CE, leaving Byzantine rule only on the coast and in the south. The Lombard Empire was subjected by Charlemagne in the eighth century CE. |
| longitude distance of a place or object to the east or west of any given meridian; measured in degrees. |
| Long-Shan (Lung-shan) Neolithic culture of central China (c. 2000–1850 BCE); named after the site in Shandong Province where its remains were first discovered. |
| lost-wax casting process used for making metal ornaments. In the lost-wax method, a wax model was made, then covered in clay and placed in an oven. The wax melted, leaving a hollow clay mold that could be filled with molten metal to create an ornament. |
| Lotharingia kingdom belonging to Lothair (ruled 855–869 CE); dissolved after the king’s death in 869 CE; modern Lorraine, France. |
| Lucius Junius Brutus legendary figure who expelled Tarquin the Proud from Rome and founded a republic. |
| lugal political leader in the Sumerian city-states. |
| Lugdunum Roman name for a major city in east-central Gaul; modern Lyon, France. |
| Lupercalia (wolves’ feasts) Roman festival named for the wolves’ skins worn by the participating priests. |
| lute stringed instrument played by plucking the strings; popular during the Renaissance. |
| Lydia ancient province of Anatolia (part of modern Turkey). Its capital was Sardis. |
| Macedon alternatively, Macedonia; region of northeastern Greece that was for a short time during the fourth century BCE the most powerful state in the eastern Mediterranean region. |
| Macedonian Wars four conflicts (214–205 BCE, 200–197 BCE, 171–168 BCE, 149–148 BCE) between the Roman republic and the kingdom of Macedonia. |
| Machu Picchu Inca city located in the mountains 50 miles (80 km) northwest of Cuzco. Machu Picchu was discovered by archaeologist Hiram Bingham in 1911 CE and has since become a major tourist attraction. |
| madrigal type of song featuring a number of different voices; popular during the Renaissance. |
| Maghreb region of northern Africa bordering the Mediterranean Sea and at one time also comprising Spain. |
| Magna Carta document—issued by John, king of England, under pressure from his barons in 1215 CE—that set down the rights and obligations of king and barons and formed the basis of political evolution in the country. |
| Magyars Finno-Ugric people who occupied the middle basin of the Danube River in the ninth century CE; ancestors of modern Hungarians. |
| Maia in Greek mythology, the eldest of the Pleiades and the mother of Zeus’s son, Hermes. |
| Mamertines mercenaries from Campania who fought on behalf of Syracuse but then deserted the city-state and seized Messana (modern Messina, Sicily) around 288 BCE; later joined forces with the Carthaginians, thereby precipitating the First Punic War. |
| Mamluks originally slaves hired as mercenaries by caliphs in Cairo to maintain order in the 12th century CE; gained power in 1250 CE; dominated Egypt until the start of the 16th century CE. |
| Manichaeism religion founded by Mani in Mesopotamia; combines elements of Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and others; postulates two competing principles of good (referred to as light, God, the human soul) and evil (as seen in darkness, the devil, the human body). Mani considered knowledge of light through his teachings and an ascetic way of life as the way to salvation. The Manichaeans were persecuted by Persian kings and Roman emperors. |
| Mantinea ancient city in Arcadia; site of two battles. The first Battle of Mantinea, in 418 BCE, was the largest land battle of the Peloponnesian War. In the second Battle of Mantinea (362 BCE), Thebes defeated the allied forces of Athens and Sparta. |
| Marathon city on the east coast of Attica where the Persians suffered a devastating defeat in 490 BCE by a small Athenian army under Miltiades. |
| Marduk Babylonian sun god. He became god of the state under Hammurabi and was considered the creator of Earth and god of wisdom. |
| mare nostrum literally, "our sea"; Roman name for the Mediterranean Sea. |
| Mari Semitic commercial center on the middle course of the Euphrates River. Its first flowering ended with the conquest by Sargon I, after which Mari was ruled by Akkad, Ur, and Ashur. Between around 1780 and 1760 BCE, Mari was again independent but was destroyed around 1760 BCE. |
| Mars Roman god of war. |
| Maurya major kingdom in India (c. 321–185 BCE). The Mauryan Empire reached the height of its power and influence during the reign of Ashoka (ruled 268–233 BCE). |
| Maya people who lived in present-day southern Mexico, Belize, and Guatemala. Their culture flourished between around 300 BCE and 1525 CE. |
| Medes nomadic horsemen who settled in Persia during the second millennium BCE. From around 700 BCE, they dominated a loose federation of tribes, including the Persians. Together with Babylon, they were responsible for the fall of the Assyrian Empire in 610 BCE. |
| Medina Arabian oasis town to which Mohammed fled in 622 CE; originally named Yathrib; renamed Madinat al-Nabi (the city of the prophet), or Medina. Mohammed converted its already largely monotheistic Jewish population, becoming its theocratic leader. Medina waged war against Mecca until 628 CE. |
| megaliths large stone monuments. |
| Memphis city in Lower (northern) Egypt; residence of the pharaohs during the Old Kingdom and during the time of the Ramesside kings. |
| menhirs pillarlike stone monuments or megaliths that may have marked sacrificial sites. |
| meridian circle or half-circle of the earth, passing through or ending at the poles. |
| Meroë capital of the ancient Nubian Empire; on the eastern bank of the Nile River, around 125 miles (200 km) northeast of present-day Khartoum (Sudan). |
| Merovingians Frankish dynasty (481–751 CE) that ruled an area of Europe roughly corresponding to modern France. |
| Mesoamerica region of Central America, stretching roughly from present-day central Mexico in the north to Honduras in the south, that was home to a number of pre-Columbian cultures. Among the most famous Mesoamerican civilizations were those of the Aztecs and the Maya. |
| Mesopotamia area in western Asia surrounding the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. (The word comes from the Greek meaning "between two rivers.") The first agricultural settlements were founded there around 4500 BCE. |
| Messana modern Messina, Sicily; site of an ancient Greek colony. |
| Messenia basin of the Pamisos River in the southwestern Peloponnese conquered by Sparta in the seventh century BCE. |
| Middle Kingdom period of Egyptian history, from around 2150 to 1550 BCE, during which unity was restored by the Theban kings. |
| Milvian Bridge, Battle of decisive battle in which Constantine defeated Maxentius in 312 CE. |
| Ming dynasty Chinese dynasty (1368–1644 CE) under which the empire was extended substantially. |
| Minoan civilization Bronze Age civilization on Crete from around 3300 to 1000 BCE, divided into the period before the palaces (3300–1900 BCE), the palace periods (1900–1200 BCE), and the period after the palaces (1200–1000 BCE). |
| Mitanni Hurrian kingdom that flourished in northern Mesopotamia from around 1500 to 1350 BCE. |
| Mixtecs Mesoamerican people who lived in the Oaxaca Valley from the 10th century CE. |
| Moesia Roman province comprised of lands that are now Serbia, part of Macedonia, and part of Bulgaria. |
| Moguntiacum military camp on the banks of the Rhine River established by the Romans around 14 BCE. |
| monastery ascetic community of monks led by an abbot under strict regulations. In the east, Basil was the founder of monasticism; in the west, the movement was founded by Benedict of Nursia. |
| Mongols Asian tribes of horsemen who originally came from lands to the north of China; united by Genghis Khan in 1190 CE; conquered central Asian Islamic states, China, Russia, and the Delhi Sultanate in the 12th and 13th centuries CE. |
| Monophysitism fifth-century-CE doctrine—from the Greek monos (single) and physis (nature)—that contended that Jesus Christ had only a single nature, which was divine, not human. That idea conflicted with the orthodox doctrine that Christ was at once human and divine. |
| monopoly exclusive control of the supply of a product or service. |
| Moscow city that became the seat of Byzantine Russian Christianity after the fall of Kiev. Moscow separated from the Mongols in the 14th century CE and assumed the leadership of all the Russian principalities. After the conquest of Byzantium, Moscow became the new Christian center. |
| Mucius Scaevola legendary Roman hero who is said to have saved the city from an attack by the forces of Lars Porsenna. |
| Mughals Muslim dynasty that ruled India (1526–1857 CE); founded by Babur, a descendant of Genghis Khan. |
| mummification method of preserving human remains by embalming. |
| Muses in Greek—and later in Roman—mythology, nine sister goddesses (daughters of Zeus) who inspired human artistic creativity: Calliope (epic poetry), Clio (history), Erato (lyric poetry), Euterpe (music), Melpomene (tragedy), Polyhymnia (sacred poetry), Terpsichore (dancing), Thalia (comedy), Urania (astronomy). |
| Muslims worshippers of Allah; members of Islam. |
| Mycenae Bronze Age settlement on the Peloponnese where a palace fortress was built after 1450 BCE. |
| Nahuatl language of the Aztecs. |
| Navarre Christian kingdom in northern Spain. Pushed into the Pyrenees over the 11th century CE, it became increasingly involved in French politics. Its last king, Henry IV, was the founder of the French royal dynasty of the Bourbons. |
| Neanderthal archaic branch of Homo sapiens classified today as Homo sapiens Neanderthalensis; lived between 75,000 and 30,000 years ago in Europe and Asia. |
| Nedao, Battle of battle on the banks of the Nedava River in Pannonia in which a Germanic alliance defeated the Huns in 455 CE. |
| Neolithic period era that lasted from around 8000 to 2000 BCE; characterized by a shift from hunting and gathering to domestication of plants and animals. |
| Neoplatonism third-century-CE school of Greek philosophy. |
| Nestorianism doctrine of Nestorius (c. 382–451 CE), patriarch of Constantinople (428–431 CE). He postulated that Jesus Christ acted as a single person but did not have conjoined divine and human natures, being purely human on earth and purely god in heaven. In consequence, he contended that Mary could not be called Mother of God; she begot the man Jesus, while God begot his divine aspect. This doctrine gained followers, notably in the New Persian Empire, against the orthodox Christian belief that Christ has two distinct natures, divine and human, joined in both person and substance. In the fifth century CE, Nestorianism spread throughout the Byzantine Empire but was declared heretical by the Council of Ephesus (431 CE). The Nestorians became powerful in Persia, India, China, and Mongolia in early medieval times. |
| New Kingdom period of Egyptian history that lasted from around 1550 to 1075 BCE. |
| New Persian Empire ruled by the Sassanid dynasty; founded by Ardashir in 224 CE; conquered by Arabs in 651 CE; notable for coexistence of many religions, including Christianity, Nestorianism, and Manichaeism. |
| New World European term for the Americas. |
| Nicaea, Council of convoked by Constantine I in 325 CE; defined Christian doctrine. |
| Nicene Creed statement of faith that is accepted by all Christian churches—eastern Orthodox, western Roman Catholic, and Protestant. |
| Nika Revolt uprising (January 13–18, 532 CE) in Constantinople of the Greens and the Blues, who turned the population against Justinian. The population appointed a new emperor and destroyed the city center. Belisarius suppressed the revolt with mercenaries. |
| Nile world’s longest river at 4,132 miles (6,650 km). The river flows north from central Africa into Egypt, where in the final part of its course it forms a delta before reaching the Mediterranean Sea. During the annual rainy season in central Africa, the Nile River floods its banks, rendering the surrounding valley fertile and suitable for agriculture and horticulture. |
| Nineveh city of the ancient Assyrian Empire; situated on the Tigris River opposite modern Mosul (Iraq). |
| Nisibis city in ancient Armenia ceded to the Persian king Shapur II by the Roman emperor Jovian in 364 CE; modern Nusaybin, Turkey. |
| Normandy area in western Gaul given in fief to the Normans in 911 CE and where they established an empire. Norman nobles established a kingdom in southern Italy and Sicily in the early 11th century CE. The Norman duke William the Conqueror conquered England in 1066 CE. In 1204 CE, Normandy was incorporated into the French Empire. |
| Normans "North men" or Vikings; Nordic people (Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes) who variously raided, traded, and settled on the coasts and rivers of Europe, Greenland, and North America in the eighth and ninth centuries CE. |
| Novgorod Russian trading post and manufacturing center for the German hansas, which monopolized trade in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. Novgorod came under Mongol threat in the 13th century CE. Ivan III conquered the city in 1478 CE. |
| Nubia region in Africa, extending from the Nile River Valley to the shores of the Red Sea, southward to Khartoum, and westward to the Libyan Desert. The southern part of Nubia included Kush. |
| Numantia Celtiberian stronghold until 133 BCE, when it fell to the forces of the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus; near modern Soria, Spain. |
| Numidia region of northern Africa; roughly equivalent to modern Algeria. |
| Numitor legendary king of Alba Longa; grandfather of Romulus and Remus; deposed by his younger brother, Amulius. |
| obsidian type of glass formed by the cooling of molten lava. Mesoamerican people used obsidian to produce decorative objects, tools, and weapons. |
| Old Kingdom period of Egyptian history that lasted from around 2650 to 2150 BCE. |
| Olmecs Mesoamerican people who lived on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico from around 1500 BCE. Today, the Olmecs are best known for the giant stone heads that they carved out of basalt. |
| optimates conservative senatorial aristocracy during the later Roman republic (c. 133–27 BCE). |
| Orléans city in the French duchy of Berry on the side of Charles VII and beleaguered by the English in 1428 and 1429 CE. In 1429 CE, the city was freed by a French army led by Joan of Arc. |
| Osiris ancient Egyptian god of death and the underworld. |
| Ostia ancient town at the mouth of the Tiber River; port of Rome. |
| Ostrogoths Germanic tribe from Ukraine; subjected by the Huns; migrated to Hungary in the fifth century CE; established a kingdom in Italy under Theodoric (493 CE); defeated under Totila (552 CE). |
| Paleolithic period era that lasted from around 1.6 million years ago to 10,000 BCE. |
| Palmyra ancient city in south-central Syria, 130 miles (210 km) northeast of Damascus. |
| Pannonia Roman province roughly corresponding to present-day eastern Austria, western Hungary, and parts of Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia. |
| Parnassus mountain of central Greece; in Greek mythology, the home of Apollo and the Muses. |
| Parni nomadic tribe living to the east of the Caspian Sea. Its members founded the Parthian Empire. |
| Parthenon temple on the Athenian Acropolis dedicated to Pallas Athena; built between 447 and 438 BCE. |
| Parthia kingdom founded around 240 BCE; part of present-day Afghanistan and Iran. |
| Parthians inhabitants of Parthia; acclaimed for their equestrian skills; regularly waged war with the Roman Empire; conquered by rebelling Persians, who founded the New Persian Kingdom (224 CE). |
| patrician in Rome, an aristocrat; often a member of the ruling class. |
| patron someone who commissions a work of art and pays for its production. Many of the great paintings and statues of the Renaissance were created under the patronage of the Italian nobility. |
| Peasants’ Revolt uprising of English laborers in 1381 CE (during the reign of Richard II) against taxation and the maximum wage. |
| Pechenegs seminomadic Turkic people who occupied the steppes to the north of the Black Sea; threatened Byzantium in the 10th century CE. |
| Peloponnese large, mountainous peninsula joined to the mainland of Greece by the Isthmus of Corinth. |
| Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) conflict of hegemony between Athens (generally allied with the Ionians) and Sparta (allied with the Dorians). The direct cause was a conflict about the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu). The army of Sparta annually destroyed Attica, while the Athenian fleet plundered the Peloponnesian coasts. Sparta finally triumphed over Athens with help from the Persians. |
| Pergamum ancient Greek city in Asia Minor; near modern Izmir, Turkey. |
| Period of the Warring States last period (c. 475–221 BCE) of the Zhou (Chou) dynasty during which war was a constant fact of life, although trade, agriculture, and urbanization evolved simultaneously. Legislation and philosophy, such as Confucianism, legalism, and Taoism also developed at this time. At the end of the Period of Warring States, China was reunited. |
| Persephone daughter of Demeter, the goddess of agriculture. Her recurring abduction by Hades and return from the underworld symbolize the growth and decay of life. |
| Persepolis important center of the Persian kingdom of the Achaemenids. From the reign of Darius, it was also a major royal citadel with multicolumned halls. Persepolis was destroyed by Alexander the Great. |
| Persis ancient country in western Asia (present-day southwestern Iran). Its name derives from that of the Parsua, a nomadic people who settled there in the seventh century BCE. |
| perspective technique, developed in the Renaissance, that allows artists to create the illusion of three-dimensional space within their paintings. |
| Petra ancient city of western Asia in present-day Jordan; center of an Arab kingdom in Hellenistic and Roman times. |
| phalanx battle array used by the ancient Greeks and Macedonians, consisting of a number of rows of heavily armed infantry soldiers. Thebans later introduced the diagonal phalanx, which had more rows on one side. |
| pharaoh Egyptian king, who also acted as legislator, military general, and religious leader. |
| Philistines Indo-European maritime people who settled in coastal Canaan at the end of the 13th century BCE. They drove the Israelites and the Canaanites out from the coastal area, forcing the Israelite tribes to organize centrally. King David of Israel and Judah ended their expansion. |
| Phoenicia country north of modern Israel and Lebanon consisting of mountains and a narrow coastal strip. It was inhabited by local groups, mainly Canaanites. After Egyptian rule (c. 1500–1350 BCE) and Hittite rule (c. 1350–1200 BCE), Phoenicia became independent around 1100 BCE. Phoenician forests were used for shipbuilding and timber export. |
| Picts ancient people of Great Britain; driven into Scotland by Romans and Britons. |
| plebeian any citizen of Rome who was not a patrician (aristocrat); member of the lower classes. |
| Pleistocene epoch period between 1.8 million and 10,000 years ago during which the ice ages occurred. |
| Po longest river in Italy; rises in the western Alps and flows 405 miles (652 km) to the Adriatic Sea, which it enters south of Venice. |
| podestas hired strong men used by Frederick I Barbarossa against Lombard cities. |
| Poitiers city in central France; site where Edward the Black Prince of England destroyed the French army in 1356 CE with an army of archers and lancers and John the Good, the French king, was taken prisoner. |
| polis (plural: poleis) independent Greek city-state. |
| polyphonic music music consisting of a number of different melodic lines played simultaneously. |
| Popol Vuh Mayan manuscript that is also known as the Book of the Community. The Popol Vuh contained the Maya’s account of the creation of the world. |
| populares patrician political group in the late Roman republic that drew support from the masses against the ruling oligarchy. |
| Portugal western region of the Iberian Peninsula given to Henry of Burgundy and his wife, Theresa, by Alfonso I, king of Castile, in 1093 CE. Their son Alfonso Henriques rebelled against Theresa in 1128 CE. He proclaimed himself to be the king in 1139 CE and was officially granted the throne as Alfonso I by the dominant Portuguese nobility in 1143 CE. |
| Poseidon Greek god of the sea, earthquakes, and volcanic phenomena; creator of the horse; brother of Zeus. |
| Postclassic period period of American history that lasted roughly from 900 to 1540 CE. |
| potsherd fragment of pottery, usually one that has been unearthed by archaeological excavation. |
| Praetorian Guard imperial bodyguard in ancient Rome. |
| praetors political leaders of the Roman republic; later became known as consuls. |
| Preclassic period period of American history that lasted roughly from 1500 BCE to 300 CE. |
| pre-Columbian people or a culture that existed in the Americas prior to the continents’ discovery by Christopher Columbus in 1492 CE. |
| prehistory period of human history before the development of writing; knowledge of this time is based on archaeological sources and scientific dating methods. |
| Prester John mythical Christian ruler of an unspecified land in the East. Western nations hoped that he would join forces with them against the Mongols and the Muslims. |
| prytanes 10 groups of 50 men from the Council of 500; formed the daily administration of Athens for one-month periods. |
| pueblo housing complex made by the peoples of the southwestern United States. Pueblos were made out of stone and adobe bricks. |
| pulque sacred Aztec drink; made out of fermented cactus juice. |
| Punic War, First (264–241 BCE) war between Rome and Carthage for supremacy in the western Mediterranean. Rome adopted seafaring armies to defeat the Carthaginian power at sea. By introducing grappling, they defeated the Carthaginians. Carthage then ceded Sicily to Rome. |
| Punic War, Second (218–201 BCE) war between Rome and Carthage (under Hannibal) for supremacy in the western Mediterranean. |
| Punic War, Third (149–146 BCE) war between Rome and Carthage for supremacy in the Mediterranean. The Romans destroyed Carthage in 146 BCE. |
| Punjab region of northwestern India. Its name derives from Persian words meaning "five rivers." |
| pyramid building with a square base and four triangular sides. The Aztecs and the Maya both built pyramids. In Mesoamerican cultures, pyramids were used as venues for human sacrifice. In Egypt, pyramid construction reached its height between around 2600 and 2400 BCE. |
| Qin (Ch’in) dynasty rulers of northwestern China who took control of the whole country in 221 BCE. They established a central government and replaced the old feudal system with direct administration by bureaucratic officials. |
| quadrant device used by sailors to help them navigate. The quadrant was shaped like a triangle, with two straight edges and one curved edge. By using a quadrant, a sailor could calculate his ship’s latitude (its distance to the north or south of the equator). |
| quaestor Roman official who originally assisted consuls in criminal justice; eventually, financial manager. |
| Quetzalcoatl major Aztec deity; represented as a feathered serpent. The Aztecs believed that Quetzalcoatl had appeared on Earth as a god-king and that he would one day return. |
| quipu piece of knotted string used for administrative purposes in the Inca Empire. |
| Re Egyptian sun god. The pharaoh was considered his son and ascended to his heavenly empire after death. |
| Rea Silvia legendary daughter of Numitor, king of Alba Longa; became a Vestal Virgin; mother of Romulus and Remus. |
| Reconquista Spanish for "reconquest"; Christian reconquering of occupied Spain from the Muslims (11th–13th centuries CE). |
| relief figurative sculpture that projects from a supporting background, which is usually a plane surface. |
| Renaissance period of European history marked by an increased interest in the works of classical writers, scientific advances, and a flourishing of the arts. Historians disagree about when the Renaissance started and ended, but it is generally agreed that the period was at its height between around 1450 and 1525 CE. |
| res publica (public things) republic; Roman state (c. 510–27 BCE) governed by two annually elected consuls. Citizens exercised influence through popular assemblies and the senate. |
| rhetors orator-politicians in Athens. With their rhetorical gifts, they had great influence on Athenian politics. |
| Rhine river of western Europe that flows 865 miles (1,390 km) from the eastern Swiss Alps to the North Sea. |
| Rhodes largest of the Dodecanese, a group of islands in the Aegean Sea off the eastern coast of mainland Greece. |
| Rhone river that flows 505 miles (813 km) from its source in Switzerland, through France, to the Mediterranean Sea. |
| Romulus and Remus legendary twin sons of the war god Mars. Separated at birth from their mother, Rea Silvia, they were suckled in infancy by a she-wolf. They later co-founded the city of Rome. Romulus then killed Remus and became the first king of Rome. |
| Roncesvalles village in Navarre (northern Spain) near which the Basques massacred the rearguard of Charlemagne’s army in 778 CE. |
| Rubicon small stream separating Gaul from the central Roman republic. When Julius Caesar crossed it in 49 BCE—in defiance of a law that forbade provincial generals from leaving the territories to which they were assigned—he precipitated a three-year civil war. At the end of the conflict, Caesar himself was in control of the Roman world. |
| Sabines ancient people who lived in mountains to the east of the Tiber River. According to legend, their women were carried off by the men of Rome. |
| Salamis island on the western coast of Attica where the Persian fleet was defeated by the Greeks in 480 BCE. |
| Samarra town on the Tigris River that became the capital of the Abbasid caliphate in 836 CE. |
| samurai member of the Japanese warrior caste that rose to power in the 12th century CE and dominated the Japanese government until the Meiji Restoration in 1868 CE. |
| Sanskrit old Indo-Aryan language widely used in northern India as early as 1800 BCE. |
| Sassanids dynasty of kings (224–651 CE); captured Mesopotamia and eastern Syria from the Byzantines in the fourth century CE; conquered Jerusalem in 614 CE; defeated by Alexius in 628 CE. |
| satrap provincial governor in the Achaemenian Persian Empire. |
| satyr play Greek dramatic work with a heroic mythological theme, like a tragedy, but with a humorous tone and a chorus of satyrs (goatlike male companions of Pan and Dionysus who roamed the woods and mountains). Satyr plays formed the last part of a tetralogy and were thus always performed after three tragedies. |
| Saxons ancient people of northern Germany; conquered parts of England in the fifth and sixth centuries CE. |
| schism 14th-century-CE division in the church that occurred when the cardinals elected Clement VII as pope because they were dissatisfied with Urban VI. During this time, there were two popes, one in Avignon and one in Rome. Both were supported by competing secular rulers who expanded their influence in this manner. |
| Scholasticism philosophical movement that began to flourish in western Europe around 1100 CE; attempted to reconcile church doctrine with the teachings of certain Greek philosophers, particularly Aristotle. |
| scurvy disease caused by a lack of vitamin C. Scurvy afflicted sailors on many voyages of exploration, because of the lack of fresh fruits and vegetables in their diets. |
| Scythians herdsmen of Iranian stock who migrated from central Asia to southern Russia (principally the Crimea) in the eighth century BCE. |
| Sea Peoples groups who threatened the eastern Mediterranean coast, including the Nile Delta, during the time of the Ramesside kings of Egypt. The Philistines were one of the Sea Peoples. |
| Second Crusade (1145–1148 CE) authorized by the pope after the Turks had conquered Edessa and threatened Jerusalem. The Christians unsuccessfully besieged Damascus and returned home empty-handed. |
| secular referring to the physical, rather than the spiritual world; non-religious. |
| Seleucid Empire empire that, between 312 and 64 BCE, extended from Thrace on the edge of the Black Sea to the western border of India. It was formed by Seleucus I Nicator from the remnants of Alexander the Great’s realm. |
| Seljuks Turks who named themselves after their leader; captured Baghdad from the Shi’ites; established power in Persia around 1055 CE; conquered Anatolia in 1071 CE. Their kingdom disintegrated by the end of the 12th century CE. |
| Semites people residing in northern and southern Mesopotamia. They spoke a language different from the Sumerians and were largely rural dwellers. They founded the Akkadian Empire around 2335 BCE. The Akkadian and Sumerian civilizations rapidly became one. |
| senate college of magistrates; the highest authority in the Roman republic. |
| Separatists group of English Puritans who rejected the teachings of the Church of England and set up a colony in North America. |
| Septimania ancient territory between the Garonne and Rhone rivers in southwestern France. |
| Severan dynasty Roman dynasty established by Septimius Severus (ruled 197–211 CE); lasted until 235 CE. |
| Shang dynasty the earliest Chinese dynasty (c. 1766–1050 BCE) of which there are documentary records. The main part of the realm was centrally governed while autonomous vassals were allowed to control outlying areas. Most of the inhabitants were peasants who leased lands in exchange for labor. |
| Shi’ites supporters of Mohammed’s son-in-law Ali; seceded from orthodox Islam after the murder of Hussein in 680 CE. Shi’ites (from shi’ah, Arabic for "partisan") believe that their leaders (imams) are divinely guided and have the right to Muslim leadership. |
| Shintoism indigenous Japanese religion based on the worship of forefathers. The sun goddess, Ameratsu, the first mother, was the most prominent of the goddesses. The emperor was revered as her leading priest and her son. |
| Shiva Hindu god of destruction and reproduction; member of the Hindu trinity with Vishnu and Brahma; frequently manifests in female aspects, Parvati and Kali. |
| shogun originally the title given to the chief military commander of Japan; from 1192 CE, the hereditary title of honor for the emperor; continued to exist until 1868 CE. |
| Shu dynasty Chinese dynasty (221–263 CE) that rivaled the Han dynasty in southwestern China. |
| Sicilian Vespers rebellion in 1282 CE by the Sicilians against French rule. During the uprising, all Frenchmen in Palermo were killed. Sicily offered the crown to Peter of Aragon. |
| Sidon city on the Phoenician coast that was a powerful trading center (c. 1400–700 BCE). Phoenicians were often called Sidonians. |
| Silk Road ancient overland trade route that extended for 4,000 miles (6,400 km) and linked China and the West. First used as a caravan route, the road ran from Xi’an, China, along the Great Wall, through the Pamir Mountains, into Afghanistan, and on to the eastern Mediterranean Sea, where goods were taken onward by boat. On westbound journeys, the principal cargo was silk; wool, gold, and silver were the main commodities carried in the opposite direction. |
| simony sale of church offices to the highest bidder. |
| Sixth Crusade (1228–1229 CE) expedition led by Frederick II, during which he obtained Jerusalem by negotiating with the Muslims. |
| Skeptics Greek school of philosophy founded around 300 BCE; from skeptikos (inquiring); denied the possibility of real knowledge; considered inquiry to be always a process of doubting and judgments to be only of relative value. |
| Song (Sung) dynasty Chinese dynasty (960–1279 CE) that established its capital at Kaifeng in northern Henan (Honan) Province. |
| Songhai state in western Africa (present-day Mali, Niger, and Nigeria) that flourished as a trading nation in the 15th and 16th centuries CE. |
| Sophists fifth-century-BCE itinerant teachers of philosophy, politics, and rhetoric in Greece; noted for skill in clever but fallacious argument and persuasive rhetoric; provided instruction for a fee; most considered truth and morality relative; first to systematize education. Notable sophists were Hippias of Elis, Protagoras, Gorgias, and Prodicus of Ceos. |
| Sparta city-state in the southern Peloponnese; isolated agricultural land power, resistant to external influences; oligarchy; fought Athens in the Peloponnesian War. |
| Spice Islands islands in Indonesia; so called because they were the source of nutmeg, cloves, and mace; present-day Moluccas. |
| SPQR initials, written on the standards of Roman legions, representing a Latin phrase meaning "for the senate and people of Rome." |
| Stoicism school of philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the third century BCE. At its core was the belief that people should do what is required of them by nature and accept their lot. |
| Stone Age earliest period of human civilization, from around 2 million BCE to around 3500 BCE. |
| Sumerians people who settled in southern Mesopotamia (Sumer). They lived in independent city-states dominated by a temple economy. Lugalzaggisi tried to create a unified Sumerian state, but the rise of the Akkadian Empire around 2335 BCE prevented this. |
| Sunnis orthodox Muslims who follow the Sunna (the body of Islamic custom). |
| Syracuse Corinthian colony on Sicily; flourished culturally and commercially in the fifth century BCE and dominated the other Sicilian colonies. Syracuse resisted Athenian siege and defeated Athens with the help of Sparta (414–413 BCE). |
| Taika Reforms period in Japan (645–702 CE) during which landownership was abolished and the power of the emperor’s family was extended throughout society. |
| talent unit of weight and money used by Hebrews, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Its exact value varied from place to place; in Attica, one talent weighed around 57 pounds (25.8 kg). |
| Taoism (Daoism) Chinese philosophy originated by Lao-tzu (Laozi) around 500 BCE; emphasizes inner harmony with nature and submission to the Tao (Dao; the Way). |
| Teotihuacán city in central Mexico that was the center of a large state by around 600 CE. The population of the city at this time was approximately 200,000 people. |
| tepee conical dwelling used by Native Americans. Tepees were made from animal skins. |
| Teshup Hurrian storm god who was adopted by the Hittites. He was the husband of the Hittite sun goddess Arinna and was considered the king of the heavens. |
| Teutoburg Forest, Battle of battle in which Roman legions commanded by Publius Quinctilius Varus were annihilated by German tribes led by Arminius in 9 CE. The defeat effectively ended the Romanization of Germany to the east of the Rhine River. The site is located near present-day Osnabrück, Germany. |
| Teutonic Knights order of knights in northern Germany and the Baltic states. Founded in 1198 CE, they were defeated at the Battle of Tannenberg in 1410 CE. By the end of the 15th century CE, they had lost their political influence. |
| theology study of religion. |
| Thera volcanic island north of Crete where a Minoanlike civilization existed during the Bronze Age. A volcanic eruption destroyed Thera around 1500 BCE. |
| Thermopylae mountain pass between Thessaly and central Greece where Leonidas and hundreds of Spartans died covering the retreat of the Greek army from the Persians in 480 BCE. |
| Third Crusade (1187–1192 CE) followed the capture of Jerusalem in 1187 CE. Frederick I Barbarossa, Philip II Augustus, and Richard the Lionheart traveled to Palestine. Christians conquered the fortress of Acre, but Jerusalem remained in Turkish hands. Mutual strife forced the Christians to return home. |
| Thrace region of the southeastern Balkans. Its exact extent has varied throughout history, but it is generally regarded as being bounded by the Danube River to the north, the Black Sea to the east, the Aegean Sea to the south, and the mountains of the central Balkans to the west. |
| Tiber river that flows through Rome; second longest river in Italy after the Po. |
| Tigris river of western Asia that flows 1,180 miles (1,900 km) from eastern Turkey to the Persian Gulf. |
| Titus Tatius legendary king of the Sabines who combined his realm with Rome and ruled with Romulus. |
| Tiwinaku civilization that arose in the mountains of central Bolivia around 300 BCE. |
| tlatoani head of the Aztec state. |
| Toltecs Mesoamerican people who built up an empire in central Mexico in the 10th and 11th centuries CE. The empire was based around the city of Tula. |
| tomahawk club- or axlike weapon used by Native Americans. |
| tribune in the ancient Roman republic, a political representative of the plebeians. |
| tribus (district) division where Roman citizens were registered on the basis of landholdings and assessed taxes called tributum. |
| trireme ancient galley ship with three banks of oars. |
| Troy ancient city of northwestern Anatolia (part of modern Turkey); reputed destruction by Greek forces formed the basis of Homer’s epic poem the Iliad. |
| Tyre Phoenician city situated on an island off the coast of Lebanon. Tyre was a booming trade city from the 10th century BCE and founded many colonies, including Carthage. |
| uji Japanese clans forming a tribal society worshipping their own god. The emperor stood at the head of all clans, and political battles between clan leaders caused unrest. |
| Umayyads dynasty of caliphs in Damascus from the Umayyad clan that dominated the Arab world, including non-Islamic population (c. 661–750 CE); ousted by the Abbasids. |
| Vandals eastern Germanic people who migrated to Gaul and Spain in the fifth century CE; founded a kingdom in northern Africa in 429 CE; plundered Rome in 455 CE; defeated by Emperor Justinian I in 534 CE. |
| Vikings Scandinavian seafaring warriors who raided and colonized wide areas of Europe from the 9th century to the 11th century CE. Some of them settled in northern France, where they became Normans. |
| Visigoths Germanic people from Ukraine; driven out by the Huns; settled south of the Danube River as foederati (allies) of Rome; rebelled in 378 CE; plundered Rome under Alaric in 410 CE; established a kingdom in Spain conquered by the Arabs in 711 CE. |
| Volga longest river in Europe; flows 2,193 miles (3,530 km) from northwest of Moscow to the Caspian Sea. |
| Wars of the Roses (1455–1485 CE) series of dynastic civil wars between the houses of Lancaster and York, who were contending for the English throne. |
| Xia (Hsia) dynasty China’s first ruling dynasty; traditionally established by Yu the Great around 2200 BCE. |
| Yangtze world’s third longest river; flows 3,400 miles (5,470 km) from the Plateau of Tibet to the East China Sea. Its fertile lower valley was the cradle of Chinese civilization. |
| Zhou (Chou) dynasty Chinese dynasty that ousted the Shang dynasty around 1050 BCE; ruled for almost a millennium until it was succeeded by the Qin (Ch’in) dynasty in 221 BCE. |
